Poems about Asuka and the Asuka River (Utamakura, Japanese Poetry)

Asuka and the Asuka River

Asuka is the name for the region around the present-day village of Asuka in Nara Prefecture. Now a quiet rural village (and unfortunately increasingly a bedtown for Osaka), in the 6th and 7th centuries, this was the political and cultural center of Japan, before a true capital on the Chinese model was established first at Fujiwarakyo in 694 and then at Heijokyo in 710. The compact area called "Asuka" in the Asuka period is thought to have been centered on the Asuka Basin and a small area on the east side of the Asuka River (about 1.6 km from north to south and 0.8 km from east to west). Today's Asuka Village is larger and includes both the upper reaches and lower reaches of the Asuka River, and the Takatori River basin area (which was called "Hinokuma" in the Asuka period).

From about 400 CE the Asuka region was settled largely by branches of the Aya family, immigrants from Korea. In the mid-6th century, Buddhism was introduced to Asuka and its surrounding area, and continental culture developed. The residences of most Japanese sovereigns before the 8th c., such as the Toyoura Palace of Empress Suiko and the Kiyomihara Palace of Emperor Tenmu, were located in Asuka. There was no fixed capital and the palace was rebuilt on a different location in the wider Asuka area for each new sovereign. The word "palace" is in fact too gorgeous: we are talking about big wooden halls with thatched roofs on the model of for example the Ise Shrines.

[Asuka area seen from Okadera]

Many of the events described in the chronicle Nihon Shoki (720) took place in the area, but except some foundation stones, none of the original palace or temple buildings remains. Sites that attract visitors are tombs as the Ishibutai tomb and the Takamatsu tomb; ancient temples (although many times rebuilt) as Asukadera, Okadera and Tachibanadera; and the Asuka Historical Museum.

The origin of the word "Asuka" is not clear, but it may have been derived from a foreign word (such as the ancient Korean "suka, "village") or from the name of a topographic feature (such as a river being shallow). The kanji for Asuka are also interesting: 飛鳥, "tobu tori," "flying bird" or 明日香, "is it tomorrow?" The first is a pillow word in the Manyoshu and the second invites to wordplay. 

The Manyoshu contains many poems set in the area - from a total of about 900 Manyoshu place names in Nara Prefecture, about a quarter are concentrated in Asuka. So this certainly is the place to go for anyone who wants to visit spots related to the Manyoshu! However, the name "Asuka" itself does not appear very frequently in the Manyoshu, as always the geographical names for the actual places are used, such as "Ikazuchi no oka," "Makami no hara" or "Kiyomihara no miya." It is only after the capital moved out of the area that we find poems in the Manyoshu mentioning Asuka - and then with a feeling of nostalgia. The most famous example is the poem Prince Shiki (d, 715) wrote after the move from Asuka Palace to the Fujiwara Palace:

MYS I.51

winds of Asuka
blowing back the sleeves
of the palace women -
now the capital is far away
and you blow in vain

uneme no | sode fukikaesu | Asuka kaze | miyako wo tomi | itazura ni fuku

采女の袖吹きかえす明日香風都を遠みいたづらに吹く

The shift from Asuka to the Fujiwara Palace took place in 694, 8 years after the death of Emperor Tenmu, who had ruled from the Kiyomihara Palace in Asuka. From the compact Asuka area to the new Fujiwara capital was only a short walking distance, but the psychological distance seems to have been quite large as it meant abandoning the old capital.

A more specific case is given in the next poem, by Empress Genmei:

MYS I.78
Empress Genmei

"In the Third Month of Wado 3 (710), when Her Majesty, on the way from Fujiwarakyo to Nara, had her palanquin halted at Nagaya no hara; looking back at Fujiwarakyo, she composed this poem:"

when I leave behind
the land of Asuka
of the Flying Birds
I won't be able to see
My Lord's resting place anymore

tobu tori no | Asuka no sato wo | okite inaba | kimi ga atari wa | miezu ka mo aramu

飛ぶ鳥の明日香の里を置きて去なば君があたりは見えずかもあらむ

This poem was written when leaving Fujiwarakyo for Heijokyo (Nara) in 710 - to Empress Genmei, Asuka was so close to Fujiwara, that she considers them as one and the same place - but Nara is another story. "Tobu tori," "Flying Birds," is an utamakura for Asuka. "Kimi ga atari" (my Lord's neighborhood) points at the tomb site of Prince Kusakabe, the husband of Empress Genmei. Prince Kusakabe (662 – 689) was the second son of Emperor Tenmu; he married Princess Abe (the later Empress Genmei), but he died suddenly at age 28 before ascending to the throne after leading the funeral rites for his father Tenmu (Hitomaro has written a beautiful choka lamenting his death).

In later ages we still find a handful of poems waxing nostalgic about Asuka, but in the Heian period attention shifts to the Asuka River (Asukagawa) as a subject for poetry. The Asuka River, one of the tributaries of the Yamato River, flows upstream through a valley lined with terraced rice paddies; after passing through the hilly Asuka Village, the river travels through the countryside of the Nara Basin. A swift, winding stream, it was famous for its changeable flow, with shallow places and rapids, as well as deeper pools.

[Asuka River at the confluence of Kayamori]

In the Manyoshu, various aspects of this river are addressed, such as the noise made by its rapids:

MYS X. 1878

I wish I could go
and listen to this one thing:
the roaring sound
the rapids make
when spring rain falls on the Asuka River

ima yukite | kiku mono ni mo ga | Asukagawa | harusame furite | takitsu se no oto wo

今行きて聞くものにもが明日香川春雨降りてたきつ瀬の音を

Another aspect is addressed in the following poem, also from the Manyoshu:

MYS III.325
Yamabe no Akahito

like the rising mist
that hovers over the pools
in the Asuka River
my love is not something
that will soon vanish

Asukagawa | kawa yodo sarazu | tatsu kiri no | omoisugubeki | koi no aranaku ni

明日香河川淀さらず立つ霧の思ひ過ぐべき恋にあらなくに

This poem by Akahito starts the association of the Asuka River with the theme of love. But here we find mist that keeps hovering over the Asuka River, in other words, an image of constancy. That will soon change, for in the Heian period the Asuka River became a symbol of transitoriness, of changeability. For example:

Kokinshu 933

in this world of ours
what is there that does not change?
yesterday's deep pools
in the Asuka River
have become today's shallows

yo no naka wa | nami ga tsune naru | Asukagawa | kino no fuchi zo | kyo wa se ni naru

世の中は何か常なるあすか川昨日の淵ぞけふは瀬になる

And linked with the love theme:

Kokinshu 687

though this is a world
like the Asuka River
where pools turn into shallows
I shall not forget the one
I fell in love with

Asukagawa | fuchi wa se ni naru | yo nari tomo | omoisometemu | hito wa wasureji

明日香川淵は瀬になる世なりとも思いそめてむ人は忘れじ

[Stone Bridge over the Asuka River]

Another famous waka linking the Asuka River with the changeability of the world:

Kokinshu 341
Harumichi no Tsuraki

"yesterday" we say
and "today" we live
days and months slip past
as swiftly as the flow
of the "Is It Tomorrow?" River

kino to ii | kyo to kurashite | Asukagawa | nagarete hayaki | tsukihi narikeri

昨日といい今日と暮らしてあすか川流れてはやき月日なりけり

Tsuraki plays on the name of the Asuka (Is it tomorrow?) River and also uses it as a makurakotoba for "nagarete" (flowing).

Many poems were written on this theme, but in later collections as the Shin Kokinshu, we find a final change, away from transitoriness and other symbolical meanings. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Japan's early Medieval period, we find a change to pure nature poetry:

Shin Kokinshu 541

on the Asuka River
colored maple leaves flow;
on Mt Katsuragi,
it seems,
the autumn wind has blown

Asukagawa | momijiba nagareru | Katsuragi no | yama no akikaze | fuki zo shimerashi

飛鳥川もみじ葉流れる葛城の山の秋風吹きぞしめらし

This same period saw the popularity of honkadori, to base a new poem on an older one (also called "allusive variation"). Here is a new waka based on the previous one:

Shin Kokinshu 542
Fujiwara no Nagakata (1139-1191)

on the Asuka River
waves approach the shallows
in deep red -
the cold storm wind
from Mt Katsuragi


Asukagawa | seze ni nami yoru | kurenai ya | Katsuragiyama no | kogarashi no kaze

飛鳥川瀬瀬に波よるくれないや葛城山の木枯らしの風

Although this is nature poetry, we should not imagine that the poet actually visited the Asuka River to see the red autumn leaves and then composed the above poem. Most nature poems were written after scenes on painted screens, or as in the above based on older poetry - very few poets did travel, as very few courtiers wanted to leave their comfort zone in the capital - with only a few famous exceptions such as the poet monk Saigyo. But that does not negatively influence the quality of the poems!

Translations:
Levy, Ian Hideo (1987). The Ten Thousand Leaves: A Translation of the Man'yoshu. Japan's Premier Anthology of Classical Poetry, Volume One. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00029-8.
Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (2005). 1000 Poems From The Manyoshu: The Complete Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43959-3.
Kokinshu, A Collection of Poems Ancient and Modern by Laurel Rasplica Rodd and Mary Catherine Henkenius (University of Tokyo Press, 1984);
Kokin Wakashu, The First Imperial Anthology of Japanese Poetry, by Helen Craig McCullough (Stanford University Press, 1985);
One Hundred Poets, One Poem Each, by Peter MacMIllan (Penguin Classics);
Traditional Japanese Literature, an Anthology, Beginnings to 1600, ed. Haruo Shirane (Columbia U.P., 2007)
Traditional Japanese Poetry, An Anthology, by Steven D. Carter (Stanford University Press, 1991);
A Waka Anthology, by Edward A. Cranston (2 vols, Stanford U.P. 1993 and 2006);

Studies:
Brocade by Night: Kokin Wakashu and the Court Style in Japanese Classical Poetry, by Helen Craig McCullough (Stanfors U.P., 1985)
The Cambridge History of Japanese Literature, edited by Shirane / Suzuki / Lurie (Cambridge U.P., 2016)
History of Japanese Literature by Jun'ichi Konishi (3 vols, Princeton U.P., 1991)
Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons, by Haruo Shirane (Columbia U.P., 2012)
Japanese Court Poetry, by Robert H Brower and Earl Miner (London 1962)
The Making of Shinkokinshu, by Robert N. Huey (Harvard U.P., 2002)
Pictures of the Heart, The Hyakunin Isshu in Word and Image by Joshua S. Mostow (University of Hawai'i Press, 1996);
Seeds in the Heart, Japanese Literature from the Earliest Times to the late Sixteenth Century, by Donald Keene (Columbia U.P. 1999)
Utakotoba Utamakura Daijiten, Kubota Jun and Baba Akiko (Kadokawa Shoten)
Utamakura, Allusion, and Intertextuality in Traditional Japanese Poetry, by Edward Kamens (Yale U.P., 1997)
Waka as Things, Waka and Things, by Edward Kamens (Yale U.P., 2017)
Waka bungaku jiten, by Ariyoshi Tamotsu (Ofusha)

Original texts:
Kokin Wakashu (Shogakkan, 1994);
Shinkokin Wakashu (Shogakkan, 1995);
Man'yoshu (4 vols, Shogakkan, 1996)

Online:
Japanese Text Initiative (Virginia University Library)
One Hundred Poets, One Poem Each (Hyakunin Isshu), translation and comments at this website

Photos from Wikimedia Commons

Japanese Poetry Index

Haiku Travels (34): Basho and Iga-Ueno, Part Two (Mie Prefecture)

 

Haiku Travels

Iga-Ueno (Mie Prefecture)

 

hometown -

I weep at my navel string

year end

furusato ya | heso no o ni naku | toshi no kure

ふるさとや 臍の緒に泣く 年の暮

Basho

[Ueno Castle]

The above hokku was written in 1688, during Basho's second long journey to Western Japan. On November 29, 1687 Basho left his hermitage in Edo for the tour described in his Knapsack Notebook. After that trip, he twice visits his family in Ueno. First he spends New Year of 1688 with them, arriving at the end of January 1688 (in our calendar, so before the lunar New Year). After a visit to the Ise Shrines, he returns to Ueno on March 19 to take part in the 33rd anniversary of his father's death.

A "navel string" (heso no o) is the umbilical cord which in Basho's time was kept as a memento. When a baby was born, the parents would set aside the umbilical cord and store it away with a record of the date of birth. For Basho, the umbilical cord is a metaphor for his blood relation to his parents. When he accidentally finds it during his visit home (perhaps during the cleaning at the end of the year), he tearfully recollects all the years of indebtedness to his parents, especially to his mother.

[The walls of Ueno Castle]

many many things
they call to mind
these cherry blossoms

samazama no | koto omoidasu | sakura kana

Also during his return to his hometown in 1688, Basho was invited to a cherry blossom viewing party at the villa of Todo Yoshinaga (haikai name: Tangan), the lord of Ueno  Castle at that time, and the son of Sengin under whom Basho had served in his youth. "Everything was as it used to be," Basho writes in his head note.

Seeing the cherry blossoms at the place where Basho, now 44 years old, had served in his youth, stirs up all kinds of thoughts in the poet's mind. The cherry tree is blooming as in the old days and perhaps Tangan resembled his father Sengin, who had been in his early twenties when Basho knew him. Basho saw his own youth and remembered how he used to wrote hokku with Sengin under the blossoms.

This year his disciples in Iga-Ueno built a hermitage for him (one of five) and Basho named it "Minomushi-an" through the following haiku:

come and listen
to the voice of the bagworm
in my hermitage

minomushi no | ne wo kiki ni koyo | kusa no io

A "bagworm" is a sort of moth, which certainly doesn't chirp or make any other sounds, but Sei Shonagon had written in her Pillow Book (written around the year 1000) that the bagworm chirps "chichi yo, chichi yo", or "father, father." Basho here makes a humorous use of classical literature.

[Minomushi-an in Iga-Ueno]

Basho returned to Ueno at the end of his Oku no Hosomichi trip. He arrived in November 1689 and stayed for the rest of the year. On April 10 1690 he was again in Ueno for blossom viewing, and also in 1691 he continues to use Ueno as base for trips to neighboring areas.

In 1690 Basho was in Iga-Ueno at cherry blossom time. During a kasen held at a blossom viewing party at the residence of Ogawa Fubaku, a samurai from Iga, on April 10 he wrote:

under the tree
soup and vinegared fish salad
with cherry blossoms

ki no moto ni | shiru mo namasu mo | sakura kana

The above is said to be a good example of Basho's "karumi," lightness.

In December of the year before that, Basho had also been in his hometown, where he wrote another "light" haiku. This haiku was written on December 12 at the house of Tomoda Kakuzaemon, another Iga samurai who dabbled in haiku:

come, children,
let's run about
in the hail

iza kodomo | hashiri arikan | tamaarare

Basho was apparently in a happy mood, as if he had returned to his own childhood. 

[Basho, lonely on a pedestal in his hometown]

In 1694 Basho makes his last journey, leaving Edo on June 3. On June 20 he arrives in Ueno; then, after a visit to Kyoto, he returns the end of August to Ueno and stays a few months - local students had built a cottage for him at the back of his brother's house.

That Basho felt the passage of time is demonstrated by a haiku written on September 25, 1694, at the house of the Iga merchant Katano Bosui:

the village has grown old
not a single house without
persimmon trees

sato furite | kaki no ki motanu | ie mo nashi

And a final haiku, written on October 23, 1694, just before Basho's scheduled departure from Iga-Ueno:

departing autumn
their hands opened wide
chestnut burs

yuki aki ya | te wo hirogetaru | kuri no iga

The opened chestnut burs on the tree look like opened hand palms, as if trying to stop the departing autumn - or to stop Basho from leaving. He would next go to Osaka, where he would fall ill and die on November 28.

Basho spots in Iga-Ueno:

Ueno Castle was built in 1585 by Tsutsui Sadatsugu, on the site of a temple which had been torched by Oda Nobunaga, who broke the medieval power of the large monasteries. In 1608 Todo Takatora was sent by Tokugawa Ieyasu to this strategically important town. He was to build a massive castle, but the five-story donjon was flattened by a typhoon before its completion. In the meantime, the threat to the Tokugawa regime had been diminished thanks to the victory over the Toyotomi forces and the donjon was never rebuilt.

As the castle never had a donjon, the present three-story tower possesses no historical significance. It was built in 1935 by a local tycoon turned politician, Kawasaki Koji, to boost the greatness of Iga-Ueno. Although it is not historically correct, one thing must be admitted: the castle tower was built from wood and not from concrete.

The first two stories act as a small museum, showing the usual suits of armor, swords, helmets, palanquins, scrolls, lacquer boxes and other daimyo possessions. The variety of helmets and 'face protectors' is quite interesting, as are the suits of armor sitting gloomily in their glass cases. The top floor affords a good view of the town and surroundings, a fertile plain encircled by mountains on all sides. The shikishi set into the ceiling of this top floor were painted or calligraphied by famous poets and painters of the day, such as Domoto Insho (a falcon in flight). After leaving the castle, walk around (momentarily leaving the park) to have a good look at the great castle ramparts. Only part of the thirty meter high fortifications still stands, but these are at least as Basho saw them.
9:00-17:00. Cl. Dec. 29 - 31. Tel. 0595-21-3148

Minomushi-an, or the Bagworm Hermitage, stands a 15 min. walk from Iga-Ueno-shi station. It is the only surviving of five such hermitages belonging to Basho's disciples in Iga-Ueno. The present hut was established by Hattori Doho (1657-1730) and named after a poem Basho sent the owner after the completion of the hut in 1688 (see above). If is a beautifully rustic place under dense trees and Basho is supposed to have stayed here when he visited Iga-Ueno in later life. After the master's death, Doho compiled Basho's sayings in this hut.
¥300. 8:30-17:00. Cl. Mon., day after public holiday, Dec. 29 - Jan. 3. Tel. 0595-23-8921.

Translations and Studies of Basho:
Basho's Haiku, 2 vols,  by Toshiharu Oseko (1990 & 1996, Maruzen); Basho and his Interpreters, Selected Hokku with Commentary, by Makoto Ueda (1992, Stanford U.P.); Traces of Dreams, Landscape, Cultural Memory, and the Poetry of Basho, by Haruo Shirane (1998, Stanford U.P.); Basho's Narrow Road, by Hiroaki Sato (1996, Stone Bridge Press); Basho's Journey, The Literary Prose of Matsuo Basho, by David Landis Bamhill (2005, State University of New York).

Photos in this post are my own work.

Index Haiku Travels

Haiku Travels (33): Basho and Iga-Ueno, Part One (Mie Prefecture)

Haiku Travels

Iga-Ueno (Mie Prefecture)

 

should I take it in my hand

it would melt in my hot tears -

frost of autumn

te ni toraba kien | namida zo atsuki | aki no shimo

手にとらば消んなみだぞ あつき秋の霜

Basho

[Haiseiden, Iga-Ueno]

Basho's place of birth, Iga-Ueno, boasts many monuments celebrating its most famous citizen. Although there were long absences as well, Basho loved his home town and the family of his older brother and sisters still living there. After his move to Edo, he visited at least eight times and often used the town during longer stays as a base for trips in the vicinity. We will make a tour through the city and the haiku Basho wrote here in two parts.

Basho was born in Ueno in the old province of Iga (modern Mie Pref.) in the year 1644. The day and month of his birth are unknown. His name as a child was Kinsaku; he had an older brother Hanzaemon and four sisters. His father, Matsuo Yozaemon, was probably a landed farmer who was allowed some of the privileges of a samurai, such as having a family name. About his mother we only know that her parents had emigrated from Iyo Province (now Ehime prefecture). The family status was respectable, but not particularly high.

In 1656, when Basho is 13, his father dies. Within the next several years (the precise date is not known) Basho enters the service of Todo Yoshikiyo, a relative of the feudal lord ruling the province. As no record of his service survives, his official rank may have been low and his duties minor. But he soon joined the circle of Yoshikiyo's son, Yoshitada, who was two years Basho's senior and who wrote haikai as a pastime under the pseudonym Sengin.

One of the earliest surviving documents referring to Basho, shows that he, under the haikai name Sobo, participated in a haikai gathering headed by Sengin on December 19, 1665. Sengin's haikai teacher, Kitamura Kigin (1624-1705), sent a verse to the gathering. Kigin belonged to the Teimon school of haikai, the most influential one at the time, which aimed at an elegant, witty style with wordplay and allusions to classical court culture. This was the type of haikai Basho learned when he began writing himself.

On May 28, 1666, Basho's young master Todo Yoshitada died suddenly; he was only 25. It is not clear what Basho did during the next six years, from 1666 to 1671. Although he left the service of the Todo family, Basho probably continued to live in Ueno, occasionally visiting Kyoto and other cities nearby. In haiku written at this time, he refers to himself as "Sobo of Ueno in Iga Province." We have a sprinkling left of haiku written in those years, which appeared in haiku anthologies compiled by reputed masters.

On February 23, 1672, Basho dedicated a poetry contest book Kai Oi ("Shell Matching") to the Ueno Tenjingu shrine near his parents' house (see below for Basho's haiku). The book, probably handwritten by Basho himself, paired 60 hokku composed by 36 local poets. Basho served as referee and passed judgement on all 30 matches. The dedication of Kai Oi may have been Basho's way of bidding farewell to his native town. In the spring of 1672 Basho moved to Edo to become a professional haikai master, taking students and correcting their verses for a fee.

[Basho-o Seika (the house where Basho was born)]

Basho's mother had died in 1683, but at that time he didn't have the financial means for the long journey to Ueno. But the next year Basho traveled to the Kansai area on a long trip (later described in his Journal of Bleached Bones in a Field), and he visited his family on October 16, staying a few days. He had been away for eight years. At that time, the haiku at the top of this article was written. Basho also wrote a long explanatory note: 'At the beginning of the Ninth Month I came back home. Nothing of my late mother remained there anymore. All had changed from what I remembered. My older brother, now with white hair in his side-locks and wrinkles around his eyebrows, could only say: "How lucky we are to meet alive again." Then he opened a keepsake bag and and said to me: "Pay your respects to mother's white hair. They say the legendary Urashima's hair turned white the instant he opened the souvenir box he had brought back from the dragon palace. Now your eyebrows look a little white, too." We wept together for some time.' (quoted from Basho and His Interpreters, p. 112)

"Urashima" refers to a famous legend, in which a young man visits the Dragon Lady's palace under the sea. After many years he finally returns to his old village, and finding nothing he can remember, he disobeys the lady's order and opens a jewel box she has given him. Instantly, he turns into an old man.

Basho says that he can not take the white hair in his hand, because if he were to do so, his hot tears would melt it away like autumn frost.

[Ueno Tenjingu shrine]

The first haiku by Basho that has been preserved for us, was written on February 7, 1663. It is a bantering poem in the Teimon school style:

was it spring that arrived
or the year that went away?
still December 29 today!

haru ya koshi | toshi ya yukiken | kotsugomori

In the lunar calendar, February 7 (in our calendar) was the 29th of the 12th month (also known as Second Last Day, kotsugomori). Normally, spring would start on the lunar New Year's Day, but in rare cases, the first day of spring (also called Risshun) arrived one or more days earlier. In other words, the beginning of spring sometimes fell within the old year, and that inspired Basho to this witty, but also rather rhetorical verse. Also in style with the Teimon school is that he is in fact parodying a well-known waka which opens the Kokinshu:

springtime has arrived
before the old year is gone
what about the rest of the year -
are we to talk of 'last year'
or are we to say 'this year'?

toshi no uchi ni | haru wa kinikeri | hitotose wo | kozo to ya iwamu | kotoshi to ya iwamu

The haiku is mainly noteworthy for its bantering tone.

The same is largely true of the following haiku, which Basho wrote for Kai Oi, the book with the haiku contest he refereed as a farewell gesture to Iga-Ueno just before leaving for Edo in 1672.

come and look
put on a Jinbei robe
and admire the blossoms

kite mo miyo | Jinbe ga haori | hanagoromo

Here, too, wordplay is central: "kite" has the double meaning of "come" and "wear" and "haori" means both "robe" and "surrender to (the beauty of the blossoms)." A haori is a half coat without sleeves, as worn by men during the winter in Basho's time; a Jinbe-baori is a padded haori. "Hanagoromo" is a flowery costume, a kimono used for viewing cherry blossoms. The first two phrases of the haiku are taken from popular songs of the day. So technically this is a very intricate haiku.

When Basho left for Edo that year, he wrote the following farewell haiku to a friend who remained in Ueno:

friend beyond the clouds -
just like wild geese
we part from each other

kumo to hedatsu | tomo ka ya kari no | ikiwakare

Although this is a much better poem (it has real feeling), it still engages in wordplay: "kari", wild goose/geese also has the meaning "temporary," so Basho expresses his hope he will see his friend again in the future. Wild geese are migratory birds that leave Japan in spring and return in autumn.     

Basho spots in Iga-Ueno:

Haisenden Hall, a sort of shrine dedicated to Basho and built in 1942. Inside sits a Basho statue in a meditative pose made of Iga-yaki pottery, but the hall can not be entered. In fact, it is most interesting for its weird shape: the upper cypress bark roof resembles a sedge hat, and the first story roof a straw raincoat: Basho in traveling attire. On October 12 (the day of Basho's death) the Basho festival is celebrated here, with a haiku contest and pilgrimages to places associated with the poet.
Grounds free. The hall can not be entered.

Basho Memorial Hall. The small museum displays scroll paintings, calligraphy and old book editions all related to Basho's haiku. There are no English labels, but you will find several haiga paintings here with famous Basho haiku.
8:30-17:00. Cl. Mon, day after public holiday, Dec. 29 - Jan. 3.

The House of Basho's Birth (Basho-o Seika) is a two kilometer walk from Ueno Park, on one of the main arteries leading into town. It is a well-preserved 17th c. townhouse, narrow and deep. The rooms are small, but the kitchen space is large. Basho was born here in 1644 and lived in the house until he was 22, and perhaps even until he was 26 - at that time he permanently moved from the Kansai to Edo. At the back, in a garden, stands a separate cottage called Chogetsuken ('Moon Hanging Eaves') where Basho used to stay when he visited home in later life.
8:30-17:00. Cl. Tuesday, Dec. 29 - Jan. 3. Tel. 0595-21-2219.

Ueno Tenjin Shrine (Ueno Tenjingu, also called Sugawara Jinja) has a special connection with Basho. When the poet was 29, he had compiled his first anthology, a series of 30 verse matchings from haikai friends in the Iga area with his commentaries. This work, called Kai Oi (Shell Matching) was dedicated to the shrine by Basho and subsequently taken to Edo where it served to introduce the new poet as an arbiter of taste. Although based on an older village shrine, the Tenjin shrine was established in its present form by the first castle lord in the early 17th century, at the same time that Ueno as a town was given form. The shrine is famous for the greatest annual festival in Iga-Ueno, the 400 year old Tenjin Matsuri, celebrated on Oct. 25
Grounds free.


Translations and Studies of Basho:
Basho's Haiku, 2 vols,  by Toshiharu Oseko (1990 & 1996, Maruzen); Basho and his Interpreters, Selected Hokku with Commentary, by Makoto Ueda (1992, Stanford U.P.); Traces of Dreams, Landscape, Cultural Memory, and the Poetry of Basho, by Haruo Shirane (1998, Stanford U.P.); Basho's Narrow Road, by Hiroaki Sato (1996, Stone Bridge Press); Basho's Journey, The Literary Prose of Matsuo Basho, by David Landis Bamhill (2005, State University of New York).

Photos in this post are my own work.

Index Haiku Travels

Main Characters in The Tale of Genji

Main Characters in The Tale of Genji

Protagonist 

Genji (Hikaru Genji) - the eponymous hero. Second son of Emperor Kiritsubo and the Kiritsubo Consort, a low-ranking concubine. For his own protection, demoted to commoner status and forced to take the name of Minamoto (Genji). Married to Aoi, daughter of the Minister of the Left. Has a secret liaison with the Fujitsubo Lady, his father's new wife, who bears him a son (the future Reizei emperor). Has affairs in his adventurous youth with women of various ranks, Utsusemi, Yugao, Murasaki, Suetsumuhana, Gen no naishi, the Rokujo Lady, Oborozukiyo, and the Akashi Lady. Has a son, Yugiri, with Aoi, after which his wife dies. Goes into exile at Suma and Akashi but returns to the capital in triumph. Has a daughter, the later Akashi Empress, with the Akashi Lady. Becomes guardian of Akikonomu, the daughter of the Rokujo Lady, after her death. Unsuccessfully courts Asagao. Presents Tamakazura to the world as his long lost daughter. Genji rises in rank to the position of Honorary Retired Emperor and lives to see his children becoming Emperor, Empress and Minister, respectively. His political and amorous success is also reflected in his Rokujo estate, a residence built to shelter the most important women in his life.  The peak of Genji's glory, however, also announces his gradual decline, and chapters such as “Nowaki” and “Wakana” reveal his vulnerability vis-à-vis a new generation of young heroes, Yugiri and Kashiwagi.  Although Murasaki is his great love and unofficial first wife, he marries the Third Princess, who commits adultery with Kashiwagi ("Wakana II") and bears an illegitimate son, Kaoru. The disintegration of Genji's world becomes final with the death of his beloved Murasaki, in chapter forty, “Minori.” Mourns Murasaki's death and prepares to take holy vows in "Maboroshi"(his death, however, is not described by Murasaki Shikibu).

Parents of Genji 

Kiritsubo Emperor (Kiritsuboin) - Genji's father. Brother of Princess Omiya (To no Chujo’s mother), Prince Hanazono (the father of Princess Asagao), and the late crown prince who was the husband of the Lady Rokujo. He favors the lowly Kiritsubo Lady, but aware of Genji's fate were he to attract the hostility of the Kokiden Lady, the Emperor demotes Genji from imperial prince to commoner. Thus Genji is forbidden to ascend to the throne. Instead, the Kiritsubo Emperor names Suzaku, Genji's half-brother and the son of the ambitious Kokiden as Heir Apparent. Furthermore, the emperor also arranges Genji's marriage to Aoi, the daughter of the Minister of the Left and, by this, ensures that his son will benefit from the powerful political support of his father-in-law, the only one able to balance the influence of Kokiden and her party, including the Minister of the Right. Sometime after the death of his beloved Kiritsubo, the emperor learns of the existence of an imperial princess, referred to as Fujitsubo (after the name of her residence, the Wisteria Pavilion), who uncannily resembles his lost love. Of an incomparable higher status than her unfortunate predecessor, Fujitsubo goes on to become the emperor's favorite and ultimately Empress, but her resemblance to Genji's mother also attracts Genji's initially childish interest in her. This childish interest, once turned erotic, fuels much of the later narrative plot. Note that there is only a five-year difference between Fujitsubo, officially Genji's stepmother, and Genji himself: Fujitsubo enters the palace at 16 when Genji is 11. So he is much closer in age to her than his father, who is presumably in his thirties. (chapter 1; dies chapter 10)

Kiritsubo Lady (Kiritsubo Koi) – Beloved concubine of the Kiritsubo Emperor and mother of Genji. Daughter of a Major counselor who was a brother of the Akashi Priest. Low ranking consort (koi) who is loved by the first emperor. Lady Kiritsubo is disadvantaged at court because she lacks parental support - her father is already dead at the beginning of the narrative. Because she enjoys the Emperor's favor, she provokes the jealousy of other imperial concubines, in particular that of the Kokiden Consort, a lady with well-founded hopes of becoming Empress. As a result, Kiritsubo is constantly harassed by the other women and the humiliations she has to suffer at court eventually trigger her premature death, only three years after having given birth to Genji. Her name is derived from the Paulownia Pavilion, where she resided while at the Imperial Court, the farthest location from the emperor's chambers and symbolic of her low status. (Chapter 1)

Brothers of Genji

Suzaku Emperor (Suzakuin) – Eldest son of the Kiritsubo Emperor by Kokiden; half-brother of Genji, and grandson of the powerful Minister of the Right.
There is an undercurrent of rivalry in the relation between Suzuku and Genji. Suzaku is named Heir Apparent, although the Kiritsubo Emperor would have personally preferred to make Genji crown prince. He is a puppet in the hands of his mother Kokiden. He sees the women he would like to have taken away from him by Genji, such as Oborozukiyo and Akikonomu. Throughout the narrative he is a sort of pathetic figure, although he also retains a tragic dignity, especially during the “Wakana” chapters, when, after having abdicated and taken Buddhist vows, his religious devotion is obstructed by his excessive paternal love for his favorite daughter, the Third Princess (like Genji's death, Suzaku's death is not featured in the narrative).

Hotaru (Prince Hotaru, Hotaru no Miya) – Son of Emperor Kiritsubo, and therefore Genji’s half-brother. Hotaru always remains close to Genji, even when more and more people break ties with him just before he leaves in exile to Suma. He is an elegant person and acts as judge in the picture contest ("E-awase") and the incense-making contest. Hotaru harbors special feelings for Genji's adopted daughter, Tamakazura. He receives the nickname “Hotaru,” “Firefly,” because Genji releases fireflies in Tamakazura’s room to show her outline to him through the blinds. Later becomes the husband of Higekuro’s daughter Makibashira.

Eight Prince (Hachi no Miya) - Appears in the Uji chapters. Eight son of the Kiritsubo Emperor and half-brother of Genji and Suzaku. Father of the Uji princesses and Ukifune. Ostracized by court society for attempting to supplant the crown prince (the future Reizei emperor). He lives in retirement in Uji, where he raises his two daughters and devotes himself to Buddhism. Dies in "Shii ga Moto."

The women around Genji

Fujitsubo (Lady Fujitsubo, Fujitsubo Chugu) - Genji's stepmother. Daughter of an earlier emperor (now deceased) and thus imperial princess, Fujitsubo enters the service of Emperor Kiritsubo at the age of sixteen, mainly because of her resemblance to the deceased Lady Kiritsubo. She soon becomes an imperial favorite, but also Genji's childhood crush and later lifelong obsession. By chapter seven, “Momiji no ha,” it becomes obvious that Fujitsubo (aged 23) and Genji (aged 18) are already involved in an illicit love affair (although the author does not describe it, but rather implies the beginning of the relationship), the result of which is the birth of Reizei (future emperor) whom everyone, except the two lovers, believes to be the son of the Kiritsubo Emperor. Elevated to the rank of Empress and having her son named Heir Apparent (Reizei is to succeed Suzaku), Fujitsubo gradually grows more and more troubled by guilt and the fear of having her secret exposed. Once Genji's advances intensify and, in the public realm, the faction of the Kokiden Lady comes to power, Fujitsubo's only countermeasure is to take vows and become a nun (“Sakaki”). By this, she hopes on the one hand, to put Genji off and eliminate the risk of their affair being discovered and, on the other hand, to reassure Kokiden that she renounces any secular, political claims to power. After Genji's return from exile, as a retired empress dowager she forms a political alliance with him to safeguard the future of their son Reizei, but all the same privately keeps him at a distance. Fujitsubo makes her debut as a substitute for Kiritsubo, yet, later, Genji will look for substitutes for her, in women such as Utsusemi, the Third Princess, but most of all, in Murasaki). (chapter 1; chapter 10 becomes a nun; chapter 19 dies aged 36 or 37)

Aoi (Princess Aoi, Aoi no Ue) - Genji's first official wife, the daughter of the Minister of the Left and Princess Omiya; sister of Genji’s friend To no Chujo. From the beginning of their marriage, she and Genji are not on the best of terms. She marries Genji when she is sixteen and he only twelve. Proud and distant to her husband, Aoi is constantly aware of the age difference between them and very much hurt by Genji's philandering. For only a short while, after giving birth to Genji's son, Yugiri, and suffering episodes of spirit possession, does Aoi actually appear sympathetic in Genji's eyes. Aoi dies at the end of the “Aoi” chapter at age 26. Genji feels deep remorse after Aoi's death for not paying more attention to her and not holding her in higher regard. (chapter 1-chapter 9)

Murasaki (Murasaki no Ue) – Daughter of Prince Hyobu by a minor consort. Niece of Fujitsubo. She makes her debut into the tale as a substitute for her unattainable aunt, but she gradually outshines Fujitsubo in Genji's eyes. In fact, her very name, “Murasaki” translated as “Lavender,” plays on the similarity of two colors in both their names (the color “murasaki” is purple of a darker hue than “fuji”, wisteria, of Fujitsubo's name). Discovered by Genji in the Northern Hills when she is only ten, she is taken into his Nijo residence after the death of her grandmother where she is molded into Genji's ideal woman. She remains Genji's most important lover throughout the tale, but, because of her imperfect social status (she is of royal blood on her father's side, but her mother was a commoner), she can never be acknowledged as Genji's main wife (kita no kata). For that reason, her position is perpetually insecure, especially when Genji's attention shifts to other women including the Akashi Lady and Asagao, but most importantly, the Third Princess. Childless her entire life, Murasaki adopts Genji's daughter by the Akashi Lady in "Matsukaze" and raise her to become Empress. Shocked by Genji's marriage to the Third Princess, towards the end of her life she repeatedly expresses her desire to become a nun, but meets Genji's resolute opposition. She becomes the victim of spirit possession in chapter 35 and dies in chapter 40 at age 43 without having realized her wish to take vows. The beauty of her character resides in its complexity. (chapters 5–40)

Rokujo Lady (Rokujo no Miyasudokoro) – A lady of high birth and Genji's senior by seven years. Introduced in the tale in chapter four, “Yugao,” as Genji's lover, Rokujo is not mentioned in any of the previous chapters. Nevertheless, the later narrative does clarify certain biographical aspects: she is the widow of a former Crown Prince (presumably one of Emperor Kiritsubo's brothers) by whom she has a daughter, Akikonomu, and would have become an empress, if not for her husband's untimely death. Because of her outstanding social position, she is entitled to be treated with the utmost respect, a fact which Genji, too caught up in his philandering, neglects to do. She is one of Genji's neglected lovers. Humiliated by Genji's disrespect for her, angered and jealous by the rumors of his affairs, Rokujo becomes the perfect candidate for being the possessing spirit behind Yugao's demise, at least in traditional interpretations of the tale. Her identification as possessing spirit is further reinforced in the “Aoi” chapter, where several clues seem to make her the culprit in Aoi's possession and death. Troubled by the gossip about her involvement in Aoi's possession, Rokujo herself comes to believe in her own guilt. As a result, she decides to follow her daughter Akikonomu, appointed as High Priestess, to Ise. After her return to the capital, she entrusts Akikonomu to Genji's guardianship and dies in chapter fourteen, “Miotsukushi.” Following her death, she keeps being identified as the spirit inflicting torment upon Genji's women, Murasaki and the Third Princess. (chapters 4–14; as the presumed possessing spirit, chapters 35, 36)

Akikonomu (Lady Akikonomu, Akikonomu Chugu) – Daughter of the Rokujo Lady and a crown prince. Becomes Ise Priestess in "Sakaki." Genji later acts as her guardian (but never as her lover). Becomes a high Consort (Umetsubo) of the Reizei Emperor, Genji's secret son, in "E-awase" and is promoted to empress in "Otome." Her marriage remains however without issue. In Genji’s Rokujo Estate, she lives in the Autumn Section; her sobriquet "Akikonomu", "One fond of autumn," derives from a debate on the seasons in "Usugumo."

Utsusemi (Lady of the Locust Shell) – A lady of lower rank, after the death of her father she has no choice but to become the second wife of the elderly Iyo Deputy, whose first wife is dead at the time of the narrative; this means she is also the stepmother of the Governor of Kii. She attracts Genji's attention, but resists his courtship despite his repeated attempts to win her over. Although she will not become a central character, Utsusemi is memorable as the first woman Genji courts in the tale and whose courtship the reader actually witnesses and also as the first to  resist him. At the end of the fourth chapter, "Yugao", Utsusemi leaves the capital with her husband who has been appointed governor of a province. Utsusemi returns in chapter sixteen, “Sekiya,” when she meets Genji on her return from the provinces. They exchange poems, and Utsusemi is shown to regret not being able to accept Genji's advances (because of Utsusemi's marriage and differences in rank). The last time the readers encounter Utsusemi is in chapter 23, “Hatsune,” where we learn that she has become a nun after her husband's death. The reason behind her decision is her desire to escape the unwelcome amorous attentions of her step-son, the Governor of Kii. After taking the tonsure, Utsusemi comes to depend upon Genji and takes residence in his Nijo Mansion. (chapters 2,3,4; reenters the tale in chapter 16; is mentioned again in chapter 23)

Yugao (Lady of the Evening Faces, the Twilight Beauty) – A woman of lower status of about nineteen with whom Genji has a short affair in the eponymous chapter four, “Yugao.” Before encountering Genji, Yugao was To no Chujo's secondary wife and even gave him a daughter, the future Tamakazura. However, because of the jealousy of To no Chujo's main wife, Yugao leaves him and goes into hiding. It is under these circumstances that Genji encounters her, while out visiting his former wet nurse (Koremitsu's mother). The woman's name refers to the flowers that attract Genji's attraction to Yugao's shabby abode. Genji becomes very fond of this woman, of whom he apparently knows next to nothing, and proceeds to move her to an abandoned mansion where she falls prey to spirit possession and dies. The possessing spirit is traditionally associated with Lady Rokujo. (chapter 4)

Suetsumuhana (The Safflower Lady, Princess Suetsumuhana) – Daughter of a dead prince of Hitachi. a long-suffering, red-nosed lady, who is very old-fashioned.  However, because of her talent at playing the zither, Genji becomes attracted to her. He neglects her while in exile, but provides all kinds of assistance after his return to the captal.

Gen no Naishi (The Dame of Staff) - An elderly courtesan in the service of Emperor Kiritsubo. She flirts with Genji, and becomes the object of his attentions in "Momiji no ga," even though he knows any relationship with her would be inappropriate.

Oborozukiyo (Princess Oborozukiyo, The Lady of the Misty Moon) – Daughter of a Minister of the Right and sister of Kokiden. Loved by the Suzaku Emperor, she is herself drawn to Genji and even initiates a brief romantic encounter with him in "Hana no en. " Continues to see Genji after she enters the service of the Suzaku emperor as naishi no kami. The ensuing scandal leads to Genji's exile ("Sakaki").

Asagao (Princess Asagao, Asagao no Himegimi, “The Lady of the Bluebells”) - Daughter of a brother of the Kiritsubo Emperor (Shikibukyo no Miya) and therefore first cousin of Genji. She serves as High Priestess of the Kamo shrines. Genji is in love with her, but she keeps refusing him. As a princess, she is of higher rank than Murasaki, whose position would be endangered were it to come to a marriage.

Hanachirusato (Lady of the Orange Blossoms, Lady from the Village of Falling Flowers) – One of Genji’s minor ladies, but installed in the Winter Section of the Rokujo Estate. Entrusted with the care of young people, including Tamakazura and Yugiri. Takes care of the practical side of Genji's household.

Akashi Lady (Akashi no Kimi) – The Akashi Priest's daughter, the mother of Genji's daughter. Born as a middle-ranked noble, a love affair with Genji was not her own plan, but her father was insistent in getting them involved in a relationship. In Akashi, she gives a birth to a girl, the only daughter of Genji. She moves to Oi outside the capital and brings up her daughter (called Princess Akashi, later Empress Akashi) until the age of four, when Genji decides that Lady Murasaki should adopt the little girl - a higher status means that the girl when she grows up will be able to enter the palace. Lady Akashi is saddened, but gradually accepts the situation, which means she will be separated from her daughter for many years and not see her grow up. Later, she meets her daughter again, now a court lady of the crown prince, and receives many honors as the birth mother of Princess Akashi. She then receives a letter from her father about his fortune-telling dream. He writes the dream gave him a prediction that his granddaughter by Lady Akashi would become the empress, and he lived his whole life to realize that prediction. Lives in the Winter Section of the Rokujo Estate.

Tamakazura – Long-lost daughter of To no Chujo and Yugao, and Kashiwagi’s half-sister. Taken by her wet-nurse to Tsukushi after her mother's disappearance. Courted by the boorish Taifu no Gen. Flees to the capital where she meets Genji, who tries to claim her as his own daughter. She wants to meet her real father, who doesn't know she is still alive. Genji forms a salon for her admirers (Kashiwagi, Hotaro, Higekuro). He takes pleasure in watching young men compete for Tamakazura's favor. Her brothers, sons of To no Chujo, are involved, not knowing that she is their sister. Genji himself flirts with her, and is sometimes barely able to control himself. Later, Genji reveals her true identity to To no Chujo ("Miyuki") and arranges for her to serve the emperor ("Fujibakama"). She is however forced into marriage by a middle-aged courtier, General Higekuro, and becomes his wife instead and the mother of many children.

The Third Princess (Princess Nyosan, Onna San no Miya) – The beloved daughter of the Suzaku Emperor and sister of the last emperor in the tale. She is a niece of late Empress Fujitsubo in her maternal lineage. Married to Genji by her concerned father ("Wakana I"). She is young and naive, and Kashiwagi exploits her innocence and makes love to her, their affair resulting in the birth of Kaoru ("Wakana II"). Unable to bear her guilt, she becomes a nun.

Genji's offspring

Reizei Emperor (Reizeiin) – Son of Fujitsubo and Genji, but thought by the world to be the Kiritsubo Emperor’s son. Becomes crown prrince in "Momiji no ga" and ascends the throne in "Miotsukushi." Learns of his true parentage in "Usugumo." Akikonomu is his consort. He abdicates without issue in "Wakana II. "

Yugiri – Genji’s son by his principal wife Aoi. His mother dies days after his birth, and he is raised by Genji's father-in-law the Minister of the Left when Genji goes into exile. On Genji's return, Yugiri serves as a page in the Emperor's court. Chapter 21 revolves around his thorough education and romance with Kumoi no Kari when both are 14. The match is long opposed by her father To no Chujo, but they eventually win him over and marry in Chapters 32-33. He is the best friend of Kashiwagi. When Kashiwagi takes his own life, Yugiri becomes obsessed with his widow, the neglected Second Princess, Ochiba. Kumoi no Kari returns to her father's house with their daughters in the wake of this affair, but they remain married. Yugiri becomes the most powerful figure at court after Genji's death. Marries his daughter, Roku no Kimi, to Niou ("Yadorigi"). (Chapters 12-52)

Akashi Princess / Empress (Akashi no Himegimi / Chugu) – Genji’s daughter by the Akashi Lady and therefore half-sister of Yugiri and, unknown to the world, the Reizei Emperor as well. Born at Akashi, adopted by Murasaki in "Matsukaze," and married to the crown prince in "Umegae." Gives birth to a son in "Wakana I," and becomes the mother of the crown prince when her husband (the fourth emperor in the tale, a son of Suzaku) ascends the throne in "Wakana II." Becomes Empress by "Minori." Mother of the First Princess and Niou among others.

Kaoru – Son of the Third Princess by Kashiwagi. Thought by the world to be Genji’s son. As Genji’s son, he becomes half-brother to the Akashi Empress and therefore uncle to his close companion Prince Niou; as the Third Princess’s son, he is Niou’s cousin. Falls in love with Oigimi but fails to make her his wife ("Agemaki"). After Oigimi's death, pursues her sister Naka no Kimi, who is already married to Niou and who likewise turns him away ("Yadorigi"). Discovers Ukifune and takes her to Uji, where she becomes entangled with Niou ("Ukifune"). After Ukifune's apparent suicide, pursues other women at court ("Kagero"). Learns about Ukifune's existence, but his messenger returns empty-handed ("Yume no ukihashi").

The family of the Minister of the Left 

Minister of the Left (Sadaijin) - Genji's father-in-law, father to Aoi and To no Chujo, his role is to maintain a political balance at the Emperor Kiritsubo's court by countering the influence exerted by the Minister of the Right. Married to Omiya, the sister of the reigning emperor. He is entrusted with Genji's fate and becomes his chief supporter during Genji's younger years. Even after the death of Aoi, the relationship with Genji survives, as Genji entrusts his son by Aoi, Yugiri, to him. With the death of the Kiritsubo Emperor, however, the Minister falls out of favor and eventually retires from public activities. Dies in "Usugumo." (chapter 1-chapter 19)

Omiya (Princess Omiya) – Sister of the Kiritsubo Emperor and principal wife of the Minister of the Left. Mother of To no Chujo and Aoi. Raises Yugiri after Aoi's death and looks after Kumoi no Kari until To no Chujo takes her away in "Otome."

To no Chujo - Son of the Minister of the Left and Omiya. Brother of Aoi, father of Kashiwagi, Kobai, Takakazura, the Omi Lady and many other children. Marries Shi no Kimi, the daughter of the Minister of the Right. He becomes Genji's friend and rival in love during their adolescence and youth. Their relationship remains fairly harmonious for the first twelve chapters of the tale: they engage in conversations about women, share their amorous experiences and love letters and, once in a while compete, or pretend to compete, in conquering a woman (with Suetsumuhana, the competition seems more genuine, whereas in the case of Gen no Naishi, it is a mock-competition meant to create a humorous interlude). Unbeknownst to To no Chujo however, Genji has an affair with his secondary wife, Yugao, finds out about the existence of his friend's child, yet reveals nothing to him, and, for all that we know, To no Chujo remains ignorant of this affair until the end. After Genji's return from exile however, his friendly rivalry with To no Chujo is no longer related to love matters, but becomes political. Although associated with the Fujiwara clan, To no Chujo is not on the winning side: the daughters he sends to court are always outshone by Genji's own candidates so that To no Chujo can never get to play the part of a Fujiwara regent. His eldest daughter, the Kokiden Consort (No. 2) competes with Akikonomu, Genji's adopted daughter. Takes Kumoi no Kari away from Yugiri in the hope of marrying her to the crown prince ("Otome"). Embarrased by the appearance of Omi no Kimi, an uncouth woman who claims to be his daughter. Later in the tale, the two heroes, Genji and To no Chujo seem to reach some sort of reconciliation once Genji reveals to To no Chujo the existence of his daughter, Tamakazura, and the latter finally accepts Yugiri, Genji's son, as his son-in-law. To no Chujo eventually becomes Prime Minister and dies a great man. (chapter 1-chapter 41)

Shi no Kimi of the Minister of the Right (Udaijin no Shi no Kimi) – Younger sister of Kokiden and older sister of Oborozukiyo. Official wife of To no Chujo. Mother of Kashiwagi, Kobai, and Kokiden (a different Kokiden from the previous one).

Kashiwagi - The eldest son of To no Chujo by Shi no Kimi and half-brother of Tamakazura. One of Tamakazura's unsuccesful suitors. Married to Princess Ochiba, but loves the Third Princess (her sister), and fathers Kaoru by her ("Wakana II"). His cousin Yugiri’s close companion. When Genji finds out that he has made the Third Princess pregnant, Kashiwagi slowly takes his own life by starving himself ("Kashiwagi").

Kobai - The second son of To no Chujo and younger brother of Kashiwagi. His mother is Shi no Kimi of the Minster of the Right. Becomes Minister of the Right in "Takekawa." He marries Makibashira (daughter of Higekuro), after the death of her husband Prince Hotaru.

Kokiden (Kokiden no Nyogo) – Daughter of To no Chujo. Empress Kokiden, the mother of the Suzaku Emperor, is her aunt. First concubine of the Reizei Emperor, who at first favors her, but later prefers Akikonomu, so that she does not manage to become his empress.

Kumoi no Kari - Daughter of To no Chujo. Raised by her paternal grandmother, Princess Omiya, but taken away by her father who hopes to make her an imperial consort. Long-time love and later wife of Genji’s son Yugiri - they are reunited in "Fuji no uraba." However, the marriage hits turbulence when Yugiri marries Princess Ochiba in "Yugiri."

Kurodo no Shosho - son of Yugiri and Kumoi no Kari. Unsuccessfully pursues Tamakazura’s elder daughter (chapter 44).

Omi (Lady from Omi) – Daughter of To no Chujo by a lesser woman. Brought out from the provinces with hopes of providing competition to Tamakazura, who was then thought to be Genji’s daughter. Her lack of courtly manners leads to comic relief ("Tokonatsu").

Genji’s political opponents 

Kokiden (Kokiden no Nyogo) – Daughter of a Minister of the Right and sister of Oborozukiyo. Principal rival of the Kiritsubo Lady and Fujitsubo for the Kiritsubo Emperor’s affection. Bears him the Suzaku Emperor, Genji’s half-brother. Bitterly jealous of the emperor's love for Kiritsubo, once her rival is dead, her animosity comes to affect her rival's son, Genji. Thus, due to political scheming, she finally has her son, Suzaku, appointed Heir Apparent. Nevertheless, once Fujitsubo debuts into the narrative, Kokiden is confronted with a much more powerful rival, one that is more high-ranking than Kiritsubo and thus can claim the title of Empress, leaving Kokiden to content herself with being “only” the Empress Mother. Time and again, Kokiden figures in the narrative as Genji's arch rival, plotting and scheming to eliminate him from court and finally succeeding in stripping him of his rank and sending him into exile at Suma. Genji's return from exile marks the beginning of his political ascension and also his victory over the Kokiden Lady. (chapter 1–14)

Minister of the Right (Udaijin) - Father of Kokiden, Oborozukiyo, and others, and the Kiritsubo emperor's father-in-law. Marries on daughter (Shi no Kimo) to To no Chujo and another one (Oborozukiyo) to the Suzaku Emperor. The Minister of the Right plays a role similar to the historical position of the Fujiwara leaders. Like them, the Minister marries his daughter to the emperor, has his grandchild appointed Heir Apparent and rules de facto after the abdication (in the Genji, after the death) of the emperor. Stands in opposition of Genji and the Minister of the Left. His discovery of Genji in Oborozukiyo's private quarters leads to Genji's exile in "Sakaki." (chapter 1-chapter 13)

Hyobu (Prince Hyobu, Hyobukyo no Miya) - Brother of Fujitsubo and father of Murasaki and of Higekuro’s first wife. Later becomes Prince Shikibu no Miya. Of royal blood (like Fujitsubo, he is the son of a former emperor), Prince Hyobu is married with a woman suiting his high status who is extremely jealous of Murasaki's mother, a woman below her own social position. The text goes as far as to suggest that Murasaki's mother died because of the constant harassment of Hyobu's main wife, not unlike Kiritsubo. After the woman's death however, Hyobu and his wife are both willing to take Murasaki into their household, but Genji kidnaps her before Hyobu can act. When Murasaki becomes Genji's wife, Hyobu is informed of his daughter's fate and, for a while, his relationship with Murasaki seems good. Once Genji falls out of favor and is exiled however, Hyobu cuts all ties with his daughter, a mistake which Genji will not forgive after he rises to the top of the political hierarchy.

Shikibukyo Miya no Kitanokata - The wife of Prince Hyobu. Has a strong enmity toward her stepdaughter Murasaki and becomes a factor in his estrangement from his daughter. She also turns her husband into an opponent of Genji, which is detrimental to his further career. When her eldest daughter (the official wife of Higekuro) divorces her husband and returns to her parents' home, she vents her resentment toward Genji.

Genji’s retainers 

Koremitsu - Genji's foster brother (in fact his milk brother, menotogo; Koremitsu's mother was Genji's wet nurse), trusted servant and accomplice. He plays his most prominent part in the “Yugao” chapter, where he approaches Yugao and facilitates Genji's subsequent courtship of the lady. After Yugao's death, it is Koremitsu who arranges her funeral. Similarly to the Yugao episode, Koremitsu also serves Genji in the following chapter, “Wakamurasaki,” where he acts as a go-between for Genji and Shonagon, Murasaki's nurse, as well as Genji's accomplice in the kidnapping of Murasaki. A very useful servant and mediator in Genji's love affairs, Koremitsu even accompanies Genji during his exile to Suma. Later in the tale, however, his presence becomes more sporadic. (chapters 4–21)

Gosechi (Gosechi no kimi) - Koremitsu’s daughter. Yugiri falls in love with her when she acts as Gosechi dancer. He later takes her as his secondary wife and has 4 children with her.

Persons connected to Fujitsubo

Omyobu - A lady-in-waiting in Fujitsubo's service and Genji's accomplice. Her major narrative role is to facilitate Genji's access to Fujitsubo, an event which will have as its result the birth of the future emperor Reizei. In addition, she acts as a go-between in their epistolary exchanges. In the end of her appearances, she is a nun who has taken vows with Fujitsubo. (chapters 5–12)

 

Persons connected to Utsusemi 

The Iyo Deputy (Iyo no Suke, Vice-Governor) – Utsusemi's husband. The father of the Governor of Kii and Nokiba no Ogi, both by his previous wife. Later becomes the Deputy Governor of Hitachi. In the fleeting moments he appears in Chapter 2, he is unhappy that Genji has stopped by his home, even if it is due to taboos, and doesn't like being ordered around by somebody he hardly knows. Dies in "Sekiya." (chapters 2,4 and 16)

Governor of Kii (Ki no Kami) – One of Genji's retainers, he is the son of the Iyo Deputy and stepson of Utsusemi. Later becomes Governor of Kawachi. (chapters 2 and 16)

Chujo (Utsusemi's Chujo) – Female attendant of Utsusemi. Her name literally means “the captain.” Genji was a Captain in the Palace Guards at the time of his meeting with Utsusemi, so he is able to steal into the lady's chambers by taking advantage of the confusion between Chujo's name and his rank. (chapter 2)

Kogimi – Utsusemi's brother and 12 or 13 at the time of the narrative in the “Hahakigi” chapter. Genji is delighted with the boy and uses him as a go-between in the letter exchanges with Utsusemi. (chapters 2 and 3; reappears in chapter 16)

Nokiba no Ogi – The daughter of the Iyo Deputy and the sister of the Governor of Kii, in other words, Utsusemi's stepdaughter, but also her companion. She is a fleeting presence in the tale and only briefly does she take center stage in chapter three, “Utsusemi,” when, in a darkened room, Genji mistakes her for Utsusemi. (chapters 3,4)

Persons connected to Yugao 

Ukon (Yugao's Ukon) – The daughter of Yugao's nurse and the lady-in-waiting closest to Yugao. Orphaned at an early age, Ukon was raised by Yugao's father and grew up together with the lady, whom she is extremely attached to. After losing Yugao, she wants to follow her mistress into death, but gives in to Genji's pleas and enters his service. She will come to play a great role in the discovery of Yugao's daughter, Tamakazura, during a pilgrimage to Hasedera. (chapters 4 and 22) 

Persons connected to Murasaki 

Kitayama no Amagimi (The Nun, Murasaki's grandmother) – Murasaki's maternal grandmother who took custody of the child after the mother's death. While alive, she adamantly rejects Genji's offers of taking care of the girl because she sees through his innocent-looking pleas and guesses his ulterior sexual designs for Murasaki. At the same time, she does not want Murasaki to return to her father's household for fear of Prince Hyobu's main wife, whose jealousy of Murasaki's mother might make her persecute the child as well. After the grandmother's death, Genji takes advantage of the situation and spirits Murasaki away before her father is able to take her into his household. (chapter 5)

Shonagon (Murasaki's Shonagon) – Murasaki's nurse and most important protector after the grandmother. Even so, after the grandmother's death, Shonagon is not high-ranking enough to oppose Genji's plans and, faced with the decision of either to follow her young mistress to Genji's Nijo (at the risk of being accused of kidnapping by Prince Hyobu, once he finds out the girl is missing) or to abandon her, she takes the first choice. Later, impressed by Genji's social standing as well as by the care he devotes to Murasaki, Shonagon is quite happy with her decision. As Murasaki ages, Shonagon slips out of the narrative unnoticed. (chapters 4–12)

 

Persons connected to the Akashi Lady 

Akashi Priest (Akashi no Nyodo) – Retired Governor of Harima province and fFather of the Akashi Lady, of whom he has high expectations. Introduces Genji to his daughter.  He is a cousin to the Kiritsubo lady, Genji’s mother. Enters the mountains and dies after his daughter gives birth to a prince in "Wakana I."

Akashi Nun (Akashi no Amagimi) – The wife of the Akashi Priest and mother of the Akashi Lady.

Persons connected to the Third Princess

Kojiju – servant of the Third Princess; acts rather treacherously as intermediary for Kashiwagi.
 

Persons connected to Tamakazura 

Shoni no Menoto - Tamakazura's nanny. Accompanies Tamakazura to Tsukushi (Kyushu) when her husband is transferred to Dazaifu. Finally decides to flee from Tsukushi because of the forced marriage proposal of Taiyu no Gen (see below) to Tamakazura. 

Taiyu no Gen (Taifu no Gen) - A powerful lord in Higo Province. He is violent and boorish suitor and collector of women. He asks Tamakazura to marry him, but is so disliked by Tamakazura that she flees to Kyoto ("Takakazura").

Higekuro – the “bearded black general,” son of the Minister of the Right and brother of the Jokyoden consort. For many years he has been married to the daughter of Prince Hyobu (Murasaki’s stepsister), but eventually he takes Tamakazura as his wife. His principal wife then returns to her parents' home with their daughter Makibashira. Later becomes Minister of the Right.

Makibashira - Daughter of Higekuro, by his first principal wife, the daughter of Prince Hyobu. After the separation of her parents, she grows up in the house of her grandfather. She marries Prince Hotaru in "Wakana II" and has a daughter by him, but their relationship is not good. After the death of Prince Hotaru, she becomes Kobai's principal wife ("Kobai").

Persons connected to Ochiba no Miya

Princess Ochiba (Ochiba no Miya, Second Princess) – Daughter of the Suzaku Emperor and wife of Kashiwagi, who is fatally drawn to her half sister the Third Princess. Left a widow in "Kashiwagi." Pursued by Kashiwagi’s friend Yugiri after his death; despite her resistance, she becomes his wife in "Yugiri."

Ichijo no Miyasudokoro (The Lady of the First Ward) - Suzakuin's second consort. Mother of Princess Ochiba. She mistakenly believed that Yugiri had slept with Princess Ochiba, and died after leaving behind a poem of resentment due to her long-standing illness and her heartache ("Yugiri").

The Ten Uji Chapters

Kaoru – The protagonist of Part III. Son of the Third Princess. Legally he is known as the son of Genji and the Third Princess but his real father is the late Kashiwagi. As Genji’s son, he is half-brother to the Akashi Empress and therefore uncle to his close companion Prince Niou; as the Third Princess’s son, he is Niou’s cousin. Learning this secret makes him noncommittal and lean towards Buddhism. He falls in love with Oigimi in Uji, the first daughter of the Eight Prince, but fails to make her his wife ("Agemaki"). After Oigimi's death, pursues her sister Naka no Kimi, but she likewise turns him away ("Yadorigi"). Discovers Ukifune and takes her to Uji , where she becomes entangled with Niou ("Ukifune"). After Ukifune's apparent suicide, pursues other women at court ("Kagero"). Learns that Ukifune is still alive, but his messenger returns empty-handed ("Yume no ukihashi"). 

Niou (Prince Niou, Niou no Miya) – Son of the Akashi Empress and the last (unnamed) emperor in the tale; a grandson of Genji. Close companion and rival of Kaoru, his cousin and uncle, who is the only one who equals him in splendor. Privately marries Naka no Kimi in "Agemaki," but is pressured into taking Roku no Kimi (Yugiri's daughter) as his principal wife ("Yadorigi"). Something of a woman chaser, he pursues Ukifune, Kaoru's secret lover ("Ukifune").

Oigimi (Agemaki) – Eldest daughter of the Eight Prince and sister of Naka no Kimi, half-sister of Ukifune. Loved by Kaoru and shares much with him but refuses to marry. Falls ill and dies in "Agemaki."

Naka no Kimi (Kozeri) -  Second duaghter of the Eight Prince and sister of Oigimi, half sister of Ukifune. Privately marries Niou in "Agemaki," moves to the capital in "Sawarabi," rejects Kaoru's advances and bears Niou a son in "Yadorigi." 

Ukifune – Unrecognized daughter of the Eighth Prince, half-sister of Oigimi and Naka no Kimi. Raised by her mother and stepfather (Vice-Governor of Hitachi) in the eastern provinces. Pursued by Kaoru as a memento of the deceased Oigimi and kept at Uji, where she is discovered by Niou. Attempts to commit suicide ("Ukifune"). Saved by a passing Buddhist priest, the Bishop of Yokawa and is taken to a nunnery at Ono. Courted there by Chujo. Takes holy vows ("Tenarai"). She refuses to acknowledge Kaoru, who sends her brother as a messenger and tries to persuade her to come back to him ("Yume no ukihashi").

Governor of Hitachi (Hitachi no Kami) - Chujo no Kimi's husband, Ukifune's boorish stepfather.

Eight Prince (Hachi no Miya) - Genji and Suzaku's half brother. Father of Oigimi, Naka no Kimi and Ukifune. Ostracized by court society for trying to supplant the crown prince (the future Reizei emperor). retreats to Uji where he raises his two daughters and devotes himself to Buddhism ("Hashihime"). Dies in "Shii ga Moto."

Second Princess (Onna Ni no Miya) – Daughter of the (unnamed) last emperor in the tale by his former consort Reikeiden (not by the Akashi Empress). Principal wife of Kaoru in "Yadorigi", who is however drawn to her half-sister the First Princess.

Roku no Kimi - Yugiri's sixth daughter (by Koremitsu's daughter), later Niou's principal wife in "Yadorigi".

Ukifune’s mother (Chujo no Kimi) – Attendant of the Eight Prince; bears him Ukifune. Both are unwelcome in his house and she subsequently marries the Vice-Governor of Hitachi.

The Lieutenant of the Left Palace Guard (Sakon no Shosho) - Ukifune's fiance. He wants the backing of the Vice-Governor of Hitachi, but when he finds out that Ukifune is not his real daughter, he breaks off the engagement and gets engaged to one of her younger sisters.

Yokawa (Bishop of Yokawa, Yokawa no Sozu) – Priest who discovers Ukifune , looks after her, and gives her the tonsure ("Tenarai").

Bishop of Yokawa’s sister (Ono no Imoto Ama) - The younger sister of the Bishop of Yokogawa. Cherishes Ukifune as a substitute for her dead daughter. When she learns that Ukifune has taken the vow while she was away, she is greatly grieved.

[Incorporates some parts of the public domain articles on the Japanese and English Wikipedia; also inspired by lists in the Genji translation by Royall Tyler, in The Bridge of Dreams by Haruo Shirane and in The Splendor of Longing in the Tale of Genji by Norma Field]

Reading The Tale of Genji

Best Piano Concertos from the Twentieth Century (Part One, 1904-1932)

In this first installment: late-Romantic war horses by Stojowski and Alnaes, giant and complex concertos by Busoni and Reger, quirky concertos by Stravinsky and Janacek, jazzy concertos by Gershwin, Copland and Lambert, and lyrical concertos by Delius, Palmgren and Tveitt - not to forget the magnificent "Dynamic Triptych" concerto by John Foulds.


1. Ferruccio Busoni, Piano Concerto in C Major Op 39 (1904, Italy)
In its grand Wagnerian conception (there is even a male chorus in the operatic last movement) this is in fact still a very 19th c. concerto, although there are also associations with the gargantuan Mahler symphonies. Busoni conceived his concerto in five movements. The first, third and fifth movements are large, serious conceptions - the third slow movement is the emotional heart of the work. The second and fourth movements are both Italian dances, tarantella, each using Neapolitan folk song. The last movement incorporates an (invisible) male chorus. In this way, the concerto both possesses great nobility and dignity while on the other hand remaining brilliant fun. One could call it a combination of the native Italian and German-influenced sides of Busoni. But while it is huge, it is also modest, as much of the piano line remains hidden as part of the orchestral texture. A sincere and heartfelt concerto.

[Performance listed to: Garrick Ohlsson and the Cleveland Orchestra conducted by Christoph von Dohnanyi on Telarc]

2. Frederick Delius, Piano Concerto in C Minor (1904 / 1907, Britain)
Delius is an acquired taste. When I first listened to him, in my early twenties, I felt lost in the formless, lyrical soup of his music and hankered after clearer contours. But today his music fits me like a glove - we probably get more mellow and lyrical with the years... The piano concerto was the first concertante work Delius wrote and it had a rather troubled genesis, going through various versions. Today, the version in three movements from 1904 is generally considered as the most interesting and most typically "Delian" (in the last and "standard" version of 1907 the piano part was at Delius' request rewritten by a pianist-friend, but it is more Chopin than Delius). It is a full-blooded romantic concerto, but without any empty pianistic display, so although this is an early work, we already can hear Delius' mature lyrical and meditative style. Both themes of the first movement show the influence of the Afro-American sounds which influenced Delius so much during his Florida sojourns. The central Largo movement has a sonorous piano part, and the third movement (which was discarded in the 1907 version) ends with a grand tutti in Delius's finest orchestral splendor. Perhaps because of the many revisions, Delius' piano concerto is less well-known than his violin concerto or cello concerto, but it is an appealing piece of music that certainly deserves to be heard more.

[Performance listened to: Howard Shelley with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra conducted by Sir Andrew Davis on Chandos (three movement version 1904)]

The revised edition can be heard at YouTube, played by Justin Bird and the IU Adhoc Symphony Orchestra, Nick Hersh, Conductor:

3. Zygmunt Stojowski, Piano Concerto No 2 in A flat major 'Prologue, Scherzo and Variations' Op 3 (1909-1910)
Zygmunt Stojowski (1870–1946) was hailed throughout Europe as one of Poland’s most outstanding composers at the fin de siècle, a symphonist of European calibre and one of the great late-romantic composers. However, when the "long 19th century" ended in the ashes of WWI, he was overtaken by the development of music and stopped composing. The Second Piano Concerto, written in 1909-1910 in Chamonix, was in that regard one of his last works, before Stojowski directed his energy into performance and teaching.

The concerto was initially titled "Prelude, Scherzo and Variations." The manuscript and sketches for it were recently found in son Henry's family archive in New York. Henry donated it to the University of California's Polish Music Center. It was premiered in London at Queen's Hall in 1913 with the composer at the piano. The piece was published by Publisher Heugel in Paris. The American premiere in New York with the New York Philharmonic with the composer at the piano was in Carnegie Hall in 1915. The piece was dedicated to Jan Paderewski.

Paderewski's performance of the second piano concerto, also at Carnegie Hall but with the New York Symphony Orchestra conducted by Walter Damrosch in 1916, caused a sensation. Demand for tickets to the March four concert was so great that an open rehearsal was scheduled on March two. After the March four concert, the audience refused to leave. Only after huge applause that lasted for minutes did the hall dim the lights again and Paderewski returned to play Stojowski's Chant d'amour. In doing so, he violated the Symphony Society's rule not to play encores after a piano concert.

[Performance listened to: Jonathan Plowright (piano), BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra, Martyn Brabbins (conductor) on Hyperion]


4. Max Reger, Piano Concerto In F Minor Op 114 (1910, Germany)
A sprawling, serious, three-movement concerto lasting roughly 40 minutes, with a tempestuous first movement, an elegiac and delicate second movement and a vigorous third movement full of "clenched teeth" exuberance. The heroic first movement starts with a portentous orchestral introduction and bold first statement by the piano. The piano is fully integrated with the orchestra. The thick-set textures and chromatism are typical of Reger. In dramatic seriousness and complexity this work is equal to the second Brahms concerto. Few composers however have been as misunderstood as Max Reger, whose music has often been regarded as heavy and unrelievedly contrapuntal. This is a massive, tragic concerto.

[Performance listened to: Barry Douglas with Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France conducted by Marec Janowski on RCA Victor]


5. Selim Palmgren, Piano Concerto No. 2 Op. 22 "The River" (1911, Finland)
Selim Palmgren (1878–1951) was born in Pori, Finland. He studied at the Conservatory in Helsinki from 1895 to 1899, then continued his piano studies in Berlin with Ansorge, Berger and Busoni. He conducted choral and orchestral societies in his own country and made several very successful concert tours as a pianist in the principal cities of Finland and Scandinavia, appearing also as a visiting conductor. In 1921, he went to the United States, where he taught composition at the Eastman School of Music, later returning to Helsinki.

Palmgren wrote his second piano concerto, Op. 33 between 1907 and 1912. The concerto is inspired by the Kokemäenjoki River, along which Palmgren boated during his boyhood. The River concerto is probably the most popular and most played of Finnish piano concertos. In its day, its success was triumphant; in the fall of 1913, the concerto was played in Helsinki, Stockholm and Berlin and received an ecstatic reception.

[Performance listened to: Juhani Lagerspetz with Turku Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Jacques Mercier on Finlandia]


6. Eyvind Alnaes, Piano Concerto in D major Op 27 (1914, Norway)
Eyvind Alnæs (1872-1932) received his early musical education at the predecessor of the Oslo Conservatory, but he was only really influenced by his further education at the Felix Mendelssohn School of Music and Theater, his teacher there was Carl Reinecke, who thus became a major influence on classical music in Norway. Subsequently, Alnaes was able to enjoy further training with Julius Ruthard in Berlin. His musical career seemed to have a prosperous start with performances of, for example, his First Symphony. Yet he was more or less forced to limit himself to conducting choirs as there was hardly any orchestra available in Norway. He also previously held positions in all kinds of organizations, such as the Norwegian Composers' Union and TONO (Norwegian Copyright Association). Because of that busy life and the lack of a real orchestra, he hardly had time to compose major works, half of his oeuvre consisting of songs or works for piano solo. The only two major works after 1900 were the Piano Concerto in D Op.27 and the Second Symphony.

The first movement of the piano concerto, in a brilliant D major, has a large-scale  character - a true late Romantic concerto. Glittering virtuoso piano passages alternate with orchestral writing that has a Wagnerian force. In contrast, the second movement has a tragic character in the mood of a funeral march. The last movement is a tribute to the Viennese waltz and a great mixture of popular melody and virtuoso piano-writing.

[Performance listened to: Piers Lane and the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Andrew Litton on Hyperion]


7. Ernst von Dohnányi, Variations on a Nursery Theme for Piano and Orchestra (1916, Hungary)
This is pure fun, a tongue-in-cheek humorous and playful concerto: an introduction, statement-of-theme and then eleven variations on the nursery rhyme tune “Twinkle, twinkle, little star” ("Ah, vous dirai-je, Maman"). The pompous introduction is full of Wagnerian gestures and faux pathos, until a cymbal clash brings the piano on stage with the nostalgic old nursery tune, an unexpected contrast which will make you smile. What follows is a witty set of variations often alluding to the musical style of other composers. The first variation is simple and innocent, the third one romantic, bringing to mind Brahms's Second Piano Concerto, the sixth variation scampers along, the seventh variation is a boisterous waltz, variation eight alludes to the march from the second movement of Tchaikovsky's Second Symphony and the pathos-laden tenth variation hearkens back to the Wagnerian opening. In contrast, the eleventh variation sports ethereal harmonies which allude to Debussy. Dohnányi aptly wrote on the score "to the enjoyment of friends of humor, to the annoyance of the others."

[Performance listened to: Howard Shelley with BBC Philharmonic conducted by Matthias Bamert on Chandos]

8. Sergei Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No 2 in G Minor Op 16 (1913 / 1923, Soviet Union)
This concerto carries two dates: it was originally written and performed in 1913, but in WWI the score was lost, and in in 1923, after writing his Third Piano Concerto, Prokofiev reconstructed it from memory, but also altered so many elements, that it became in fact a new work, his real "fourth concerto." Prokofiev gave the new version more depth, but he also kept the original piano-athletics, making this one of the most challenging of all piano concertos. Perhaps that is why it has always been in the shadow of Prokofiev's other concertos, at least until the 1970s, when it crept to the edge of the repertoire. The concerto is in four movements, the second movement a devilish perpetuum mobile and the third a sinister march and another piece of fierce motorism. In a sense both these movements are intermezzos between the more expansive first movement and finale, both of which feature huge cadenzas as their focal point. The whole concerto is imbued with something like the grinding harshness of Prokofiev's Scythian Suite of 1915. It is a dark concerto (dedicated to the memory of a friend of Prokofiev's at the St. Petersburg Conservatory who had committed suicide) imbued with a wild temperament.

Listen to Yuja Wang and the Berliner Philharmoniker conducted by Paavo Järvi on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9U9W7FjN-M

9. Erich Korngold, Piano Concerto in C Minor for the Left Hand (1923, Austria)

In the 1920s, Korngold stood at the apex of his fame (he was the most performed composer after Richard Strauss in Austria), when he was approached by the Austrian pianist Paul Wittgenstein to compose a concerto for the left hand. Paul Wittgenstein, who was the elder brother of the famous philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, had lost his right arm in that terrible European war, WWI, but instead of giving up the piano, he devised novel techniques that allowed him to play chords previously regarded as impossible for a five-fingered pianist. He also actively commissioned works from well-known composers of his day, including Maurice Ravel, Richard Strauss, Sergei Prokofiev and Paul Hindemith, but he first approached Erich Korngold, who had just written his great opera Die tote Stadt. This concerto shows Korngold at his most experimental and features a very large and colorful orchestra. It is in one movement and so concentrated in form that it makes repeated listening necessary. Harmony and tonality are highly original. As a serious composer, Korngold was almost forgotten after he fled for the Nazis and had to build up a new career as film composer in Hollywood, but today he has been fully rehabilitated. Another factor limiting the popularity of this highly unique concerto was that Wittgenstein possessed the exclusive performing rights until his death in 1961. By the way, Wittgenstein was so pleased with this work that he commissioned another composition from Korngold, the Suite for Left Hand Piano and Strings. 

[Performance listened to: Marc-André Hamelin with the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra conductor Osmo Vanska on Hyperion]

10. Igor Stravinsky, Concerto for Piano and Wind Instruments (1923–24, Russia / France / America)
After the Russian extravagance and barbaric Impressionism of his famous ballets in the years before WWI, Stravinsky became a Neo-classicist, in contrast working with small ensembles and in more traditional forms, although he also looked for novelty in for example the interesting combination of the piano with only a wind orchestra. In this highly original concerto, eighteenth century gestures may be employed to tease the ears, but basically, this is hard driven, aggressive and percussive music, undeniably Stravinskian. In contrast, the slow movement is extremely simple and therefore all the more memorable. There is a playful episode at the end of the third and last movement, where the music stops and the piano just repeats a single chord, as if the pianist had forgotten what to play, before the final chase to the end. A vigorous and brilliant concerto.

[Performance listened to: Steven Osborne (piano), BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra, Ilan Volkov (conductor) on Hyperion]


11. Paul Hindemith, Kammermusik No 2 for Piano and 12 Instruments, Op 36 no 1 (1924, Germany)
Another Neo-classical concerto, with a small orchestra consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet, trombone, string trio and double bass. It is Baroque in spirit, each movement is carried forward irresistibly by a basic pulse. The piano writing is not only highly rhythmic, but also very contrapuntal. The first movement is toccata-like, with busy motoric figurations; in the slow movement the piano spins melodic variations above an ostinato bass theme; and after a tiny scherzo the Finale resumes the energetic style of the opening movement. A very fine work, like all Hindemith's eight "Kammermusiken."

[Performance listened to: Ronald Brautigam with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Richard Chailly on Decca]


12. Ottorino Respighi, Concerto in modo misolidio for piano and orchestra (1925, Italy)
After writing his large-scale symphonic poems, Respighi looked for a way to create typically Italian music and found it in Gregorian chant. This interest is evident in his 1921 violin concerto, Concerto gregoriano, and in the present piano concerto. The piano concerto makes use of the seventh of the church modes ("modo misolidio") and carries a flavor of plainchant in its material, the source of its inspiration. It opens with a passage for the piano based on the Introit for the Mass of Ascension Day. Also the beautiful slow movement features a Gregorian melody, brought as a dialogue between piano and orchestra. The third movement is a Passacaglia, with eighteen variations, inventively bubbling music. The concerto ends with an impressively romantic climax.

[Performance listened to: Konstantin Sherbakov with Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Howard Griffiths on Naxos]


13. George Gershwin, Concerto in F (1925, U.S.A.)
This is very fine music, a response to demands for a "proper concerto" after the success of the Rhapsody in Blue, avoiding programmatic content. The many themes are both uplifting and nostalgic. The concerto has been called "a masterpiece of unity under a veneer of medley," an integration achieved through cyclic form and thematic transformation. In fact, virtually every tune in the Gershwin concerto is linked to the big melody that follows the introduction to the first movement. The finale, in rondo form, also acts as a grand recapitulation of the whole work, again tying things together. With its snappy rhythms and jazzy dissonances layered over a diatonic foundation, this concerto is the avatar of the Jazz Age.

On YouTube played by Yuja Wang and Michael Tilson Thomas:




14. Aaron Copland, Piano Concerto (1926, U.S.A.)
Jazz was in the air and Copland's concerto of 1926 forms a sort of dialogue with the Gershwin concerto. Copland starts of with a brash, dissonant fanfare, a typical "wide spaces" opening, followed by a calm if astringent Andante sostenuto. After this more traditional 1920s music, the soloist erupts with a variety of rhythmic and intervallic invocations of jazz. In other words, like in Copland's (later) clarinet concerto, a song-like first movement is linked by a cadenza to a fast and rhythmically complex final movement. But as the jazz element is not so much present in the tunes but rather as the underlying harmonic and rhythmic basis of the score, the concerto is very different from Gershwin. In this concerto we find the harder-edged Copland from the time before he deliberately popularized his style in the 1930s.

[Performance listened to: Noel Lee with Orchestre National de France conducted by Aaron Copland on Etcetera]


15. Leoš Janáček, Capriccio for Piano Left-Hand and Chamber Ensemble (1926, Czech)
Another concerto for the left hand, not for Wittgenstein, but the Czech pianist Otokar Hollmann (indeed another WWI victim). The work is scored for chamber ensemble consisting of flute and piccolo, two trumpets, three trombones and a tenor tuba, resulting in an even more original sound than Stravinsky's concerto discussed above. The Capriccio consists of four movements. Privately, Janáček called it "Defiance," either referring to the attitude of the pianist who continued playing despite his loss of an arm, or to the "defiant" combination of a piano with mainly brass instruments. The virtuoso brass sound looks back to the military sound of Janáček's Sinfonietta, but is of course much more transparent here. All the same, unusual demands are placed on all individual players, not only the piano. The overall effect is indeed "capricious": whimsical and full of "willfulness and witticisms," as Janáček himself said. Delicious music in Janáček's late style.

[Performance listened to: Rudolf Firkusny with Czech Philharmonic conducted by Vaclav Neumann on RCA Victor]

16. Nikolai Medtner, Piano Concerto No 2 in C Minor Op 50 (1927, Russian)
Nikolai Medtner wrote three concertos, the second of which is my favorite, an energetic and entrancing piece of music. Medtner was a pianist-composer like Rachmaninoff, and he also left Russia after the Soviets came to power, emigrating to the U.K. The concerto is in three movements: Toccata, Romanza and Divertimento. The outer movements are ebullient and full of kinetic energy, the central Romanza is delightfully lyrical. In the first movement there is much dialogue between piano and orchestra and the tireless motor rhythms also show Medtner loved his Scarlatti. The Divertimento plays with themes from the previous movements in a dancing style that culminates in a riot. Medtner's music is not as gripping as Rachmaninoff, but it grows on you, and you will not tire of it as soon as of that of his fellow emigre-countryman. A concerto that deserves to be better known.

[Geoffrey Tozer with the London Philharmonic conducted by Neeme Jarvi on Chandos]


17. Geirr Tveitt, Piano Concerto No. 1 in F major, Op. 1 (1927)
Geirr Tveitt (1908-81) was, along with Harald Sæverud, the most important Norwegian composer of his generation. Tveitt was an ardent folklorist who obsessively collected and used folk tunes - his most popular surviving collection of music, the Hardanger Tunes, consists of straight-forward transcriptions of folksongs. 
The first piano concerto which Tveitt wrote at age 19 (when he was a student in Leipzig) is more cosmopolitan in outlook - only the second movement has a decided Norwegian flavor. The work is Neo-Romantic in tone, full of consonance and melody.
It is a very quiet work. opening with a haunting modal tune introduced by the piano with minimal accompaniment.  Some intensely beautiful passages follow as the horns and woodwinds trade phrases with the piano. The central movement is a dancing scherzo. The work again ends very quietly. It has a compact, arch-like structure.

[Performance listened to: Håvard Gimse, piano; Royal Scottish National Orchestra, Bjarte Engeset, cond. on Naxos]

[Henriette Bosmans, 1917]

18. Henriëtte Bosmans, Concertino for piano and orchestra (1928, The Netherlands)
Henriette Bosmans is considered one of the most important female Dutch composers of the 20th century. Before the war, Henriette Bosmans already enjoyed a well-established reputation in Dutch musical life, especially as a pianist. During the war she was not allowed to appear in public and had to support herself with underground house concerts. Her considerable oeuvre includes orchestral works, chamber music and many songs. Her most famous piece is the sparkling and lyrical Concertino for piano and orchestra (1928), created during the time she took composition lessons with Willem Pijper. Bosmans, as a formidable pianist, promoted the concertino herself through many successful performances. It has a French flavor (Poulenc?) as all Dutch music from that time, but there are also Oriental elements. Read more about Henriette Bosmans in my article on her cello sonata in the series Best Woman Composers.

[Performance listened to: Ronald Brautigam with the Netherlands Radio Chamber Orchestra conducted by Ed Spanjaard]

19. John Foulds, Dynamic Triptych for Piano and Orchestra (1929, Britain)
This is a truly magnificent concerto that for long years was completely forgotten. Foulds was popular in the 1920s for his A World Requiem in commemoration of the war dead, but was soon forgotten after his death from cholera in India in 1939. The Dynamic Triptych was only performed once (in 1933) and then lay forgotten until Howard Shelley dusted it off for this Lyrita performance in 1984. It is dramatic and experimental music, written under the influence of exotic music theories. The first movement is called "Dynamic Mode," the second "Dynamic Timbre" and the third "Dynamic Rhythm." The writing for both piano and orchestra is exuberant. The slow movement is the most romantic, Foulds inhabits a very shadowy world and the use of slithery quarter-tones is really disturbing in effect. The last movement is a sparkling dance. Jazz plays its part here, we hear cross-rhythms and changes of meter, clusters and complex chords. It is virtuoso music full of unstoppable energy which will blow the mind of anyone who hears it for the first time. Foulds may well be one of the most undervalued composers of the 20th century.

[Performance listened to: Howard Shelley and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Vernon Handley on Lyrita]



20. Maurice Ravel, Piano Concerto in D for the Left Hand (1929–30)
In 1929, a year after completing the Bolero, Ravel received two commissions to write a concerto at about the same time. The first assignment came from orchestra conductor Serge Koussevitzky on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. This commission resulted in the Piano Concerto in G. The second commission came from Paul Wittgenstein. This pianist, brother of the famous philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, had lost his right arm in World War I. He nevertheless wanted to continue playing as a performing pianist and encouraged many great composers to write a work for the left hand: so did Richard Strauss, Benjamin Britten and Sergei Prokofiev. The latter wrote his Fourth Piano Concerto (for the left hand) in response to that request.

The Concerto for the Left Hand is is a violent and dramatic work, one of Ravel's most rhythmic and energetic. As Ravel mentioned: "In a work of this nature, it is essential that the texture not give the impression of being thinner than that of a part written for two hands. So I have resorted to a style that is much closer to the rather imposing style of traditional concertos. After the first part of the piece, an episode in the character of an improvisation appears, which gives rise to jazz music. It is only later that one realizes that the episode in jazz style is actually built on the themes of the first part." Percussion plays a fundamental and haunting role throughout the work. The concerto is also a work of sonic outbursts, the likes of which Ravel rarely produces. For the soloist, facing this monument can be a challenge: the solo part is extremely difficult, the left hand alone having to cover the territory of both hands.

It is a work that is both exhilarating and fatalistic, a whirlwind of anxiety and perplexity in the face of a world that, at the dawn of the 1930s, seems once again destined for disaster. The end is truly unforgettable: the piano, which has just completed a cadenza in chiaroscuro, intensely poetic, of formidable technical difficulty, is finally joined and swallowed by the orchestra, to die under a final pounding of the percussion.

On YouTube: Yuja Wang with Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Lionel Bringuier conducting:

21. Reynaldo Hahn, Piano Concerto in E major (1931, France)
Reynaldo Hahn (1874 – 1947) was a Venezuelan-born French composer. Following the success of his song "Si mes vers avaient des ailes" (If my verses had wings), written when he was aged 14, he became a prominent member of fin de siècle French society. Among his closest friends were Sarah Bernhardt and Marcel Proust. After the First World War, in which he served in the army, Hahn adapted to new musical and theatrical trends and enjoyed successes with his first opérette, Ciboulette (1923). During the Second World War Hahn, who was of Jewish descent, took refuge in Monaco, returning to Paris in 1945 where he was appointed director of the Opéra.

Hahn was a prolific composer. His vocal works include secular and sacred pieces, lyric scenes, cantatas, oratorios, operas, comic operas, and operettas. Orchestral works include concertos ballets, tone poems, incidental music for plays and films. He wrote a range of chamber music, and piano works.

The Piano Concerto is a light-weight piece (the second movement lasts less than three minutes), but also an utterly charming work with a lyrical opening theme that  leads to variations full of sparkling contrasts.

"The Piano Concerto’s opening movement, marked Improvisation: modéré, begins in an almost devotional manner before broadening out to embrace material that has a rather cosy French provincial rustic flavor. The brief central Dance: vif, is full of wit and sparkle. The substantial final movement is cast in the form of a triptych: first a lovely, sighing Schumann-like Rêverie that truly haunts; the tempo accelerates into the unruly self-mocking Toccata and the whole is rounded off with a return, after a cadenza, to a dignified close with an allusion to the opening material. A delightful work." (From the booklet by Stephen Coombs)

[Performance listened to: Stephen Coombs with BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra, Jean-Yves Ossonce on Hyperion]

[Reynaldo Hahn in 1906]

22. Ralph Vaughan Williams, Piano Concerto in C (1926-31, Britain)
A concerto full of drama and turbulence, like Vaughan Williams' music from the same period as the Fourth Symphony and Job. The three movements are titled Toccata, Romanza and Fuga chromatica con Finale alla Tedesca. The Toccata is characterized by two "blocks" of music, a driving piano solo set against a rising theme in the orchestra with which the concerto starts, and a more scherzo-like idea, shared between piano and orchestra. A thunderous piano cadenza forms the link to the slow movement which starts without a break, a delicate Romanza. The third movement again follows without a break and begins with a fugue that is linked to a waltz finale. In this concerto, Vaughan Williams treated the piano as a percussion instrument, as did Bartók and Hindemith during this period - the orchestral texture is at times very thick. The composer took the advice of well-meaning critics to rework his music into a Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra (1946), adding more texture to the piano parts, but today the original version is considered as superior.

[Performance listened to: Howard Shelley and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Vernon Handley on Lyrita]

[Constant Lambert by Christopher Wood]

23. Constance Lambert, Concerto for Piano and Nine Players (1931, Britain)

This a deliciously jazzy concerto, but one which also becomes unexpectedly serious as the music advances. The nine players are flute (doubling piccolo), three clarinets, trumpet, trombone, cello, string bass and percussion, leading to contrast-rich music as in the Stravinsky and Janacek concertos. It is a starkly incisive, even abrasive work. The style of this concerto moves away from the "symphonic jazz" of Gershwin to something much more tense and urban, with popular and formal elements of composition closely integrated, rhythms jagged and extreme, and harmony sometimes approaching atonalism. The three movements are called Overture, Intermède and Finale (Lugubre) - and the ending is sad and silent. It has been called "a form of musical parable that investigates every phrase of language, to discard them all, little by little, so as to arrive at something which comes near to an invitation to silence. All this by a route that starts from an apparent rhythmical vital attack, progressing to the final desolate notes of the blues - subtitled "Lugubre" - through all of which, from time to time, can be recognized the echoes of jazz..." (from the sleeve notes by Silvio D'Amicone). A very original work.

Lambert is also known from his book Music Ho! A Study of Music in Decline (1934), which remains one of the wittiest, if most highly opinionated, volumes of music criticism in the English language. Lambert was not happy about twelve tone music or even the Neo-classicist works of Stravinsky, but professes to be a great fan of Sibelius - and jazz.

[Performance listened to: Alessandro de Curtis with Harmonia Ensemble on ASdisc]

24. Francis Poulenc, Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra in D minor (1932, France)
From beginning to end a very entertaining concerto. The concerto's recurring moto perpetuo, modally inflected figurations are clearly inspired by Poulenc's encounter with a Balinese gamelan at the 1931 Exposition Coloniale de Paris. Additionally, the work's instrumentation and "jazzy" effects are reminiscent of Ravel's G major Concerto, which was premiered at Paris in January 1932.

In the Allegro ma non troppo in D minor, Poulenc chooses to bypass the conventions of sonata allegro in the opening movement in favor of ternary form, with a slower middle section. If this first movement is meant to evoke Mozart, it is the blithe composer of the delightful Divertimenti and Serenades. Between the two fast movements, the Larghetto's graceful, classically simple melody and gentle, regular accompaniment is reminiscent of the Romanze of Mozart's D minor Piano Concerto, K. 466. Poulenc commented, "In the Larghetto of this Concerto I permitted myself, for the first theme, to return to Mozart, because I have a fondness for the melodic line and I prefer Mozart to all other musicians. The final Allegro molto is again in D minor. It is a syncretic Rondo that merges the insouciance of a Parisian music hall and the mesmerizing sonorities of a gamelan orchestra. Its scintillating patter and energetic rhythms produce a vivacious, effervescent effect. Poulenc creates a dramatic yet charming dialogue between the two keyboards and the supporting orchestra ensemble. Unusually, his orchestration foregrounds the woodwinds, brass and percussion, relegating the strings to a secondary role.

[Performance listened to: Francois-Rene Duchable and Jean-Philippe Collard with Rotterdam Philharmonic conducted by James Conlon on Erato]

Best Piano Concertos from the Twentieth Century: Part One (1904-1932)
Best Piano Concertos from the Twentieth Century: Part Two (1926-1948)
Best Piano Concertos from the Twentieth Century: Part Three (1951-2018)

Classical Music Index